Chapter 10: The City as Text: Architecture and Urban Design

Chapter 10: The City as Text: Architecture and Urban Design

When thinking about the landscape of an urban area, the first image that comes to mind is that of the skyline, dotted by skyscrapers and other massive buildings. However, there is much more to the design of cities than just the buildings; many different types of architecture are present in modern day cities, as well as other types of public amenities such as parks. 

Parks

Public parks were created because of the clutter of cities and the overwhelming amount of people that resided there, they used these parks as a way of expressing ideals- religious, social. Furthermore, because of urbanization and the paving of roads and everything like that, there were very few trees and other greenery left in the city. By creating an area such as Central Park in NYC (shown at left), it was allowing people to see at least a little return to a naturalistic habitat. 

Beaux Arts

Another result of the urbanization of America was to try to create more beautiful cities. Thus the Beaux Arts movement was adopted in America, and its implementation can especially be seen in the city of Washington, D.C. The mall and the Federal Triangle all were built in a somewhat uniform manner, in a neoclassical style. While there was still a great deal of urbanization of the area, because of the careful planning, it did not come at the expense of the view. 

Skyscrapers

Chicago was the first city to be affected by the skyscraper movement, but it quickly spread to other cities in the country.  This was because the preconditions of the first passenger elevator, the use of wrought iron beams, and the creation of an iron frame all coincided with Chicago's development. The appeal of the skyscraper was that it was able to rise to unbelievable heights while taking up only a small portion of actual ground area. It also appealed to businesses machismo, for whoever had the biggest building was sure to draw the most attention, awe, and therefore customers. 

American Modernism

Today, many buildings are built with ubiquitous amounts of steel and glass, which is supposed to be a reflection for today's technology and modernity. Many of them also utilize glass so that they can reflect their surroundings. A proposed 115 story skyscraper, to be constructed in Chicago, is pictured at right. The problem is, in a post 9-11 world, there is a huge fear that to create such tall structures is to invite terrorist attacks. 

Key Websites

Pictures of great buildings throughout the world

Chapter 5: The Foundations of Urban Form and Land Use

Chapter 5: The Foundations of Urban Form and Land Use

The Mercantile City

Before cars were so greatly utilized, many cities were very compact so that people would be able to walk from their houses, jobs and utilities such as banks all mixed together. Cities were created so that people could walk just about anywhere in a half hour.  There was also a definite structure to these cities, with the center of the city housing the city's elite, then the lower classes on the outskirts of the elite, and finally the poorest members of the city living on the fringes of the city. 

The Early Industrial City 

These types of cities very much depended on the location of the factories, which is why they often were created on riverbanks, so that the machinery could be powered. There also became a more stratified society, with an industrial business elite, a white collar group, and a blue collar group of workers. 

Instruments of Change: Horsecars and Railroads

In 1829, the first horsecar appeared in New York, carrying passengers through New York for a flat rate. The problem with this system, however, was that only the wealthiest families were able to utilize this system.  Soon, the railroads were created and they completely reorganized the city. This meant that the central business district was created because there was such a large amount of people in the railway station. The most important thing that the railroad did was to create a change in where people lived, as they were able to move further out from the city, increasing commuter traffic.  

Land Use Zoning Laws

Although it was originally used as a method of discrimination against the Chinese, wanting to segregate from the rest of the city by citing that they were only allowed to open laundries (their main form of employment) in certain areas of the city. This trend later spread to other cities, which had the result of dividing cities into certain districts. Another example of this practice, this time against the Jewish population of New York, would be the garment district that was created. 

Urban Structure in the Industrial Era

Many changes were brought about because of public transit besides the CBDs that were created. One such change was that there were specific shopping districts created because people didn't want to walk very far from the railway stations.  Also, in the interest of convenience, department stores were created, allowing more shopping to be done in one place. 

Related Websites

More information on central business districts

Examples of urban land use, transit, waterways, etc

Chapter 8: Urban Form and Land Use in the Less Developed Countries

Chapter 8: Urban Form and Land Use in the Less Developed Countries

Today’s cities still show how they were planned back in colonial days, typically with the wealthy closest to the central plaza, and then further from the center are the lower and middle class residents. The cities that had royal guidance in planning their cities often forced citizens to relocate to cities because it allowed them to control them much easier.  

There are several different types of African cities, thus making it difficult to compile them into one description. There is the indigenous or native city, which often were walled and were later influenced by colonial rule. Islamic cities were often some of the most important stops along the trans-Saharan caravan routes, because of the huge amount of religious centers and marketplaces. The colonial or administrative city, served as the bridge between the colonial powers and the locals, helping them maintain control over the region.  There are also the European, dual and hybrid cities which are a mix of different kinds of cities. 

It is especially interesting to see the layout of the South African city because of their practice of apartheid. There is a white CBD which is the main CBD, then Indian/Chinese CBDs, industrial districts, and separate residential areas for the whites, Indians, Chinese, and African peoples. 

Chapter 7: Urbanization in the Less Developed Countries

Chapter 7: Urbanization in the Less Developed Countries

By 1950 only about 30% of the globe was urbanized, with North America leading the world, with over 70% of its population living in towns and cities. China is one of the notable countries making strides to urbanization, using their communist form of government to fuel the process. 

Factors Promoting Urban Growth

 There has been a trend of more births than deaths, which has led to a change in demographics, increasing the total population who of course need housing. Also, immigrants converge upon cities, because there is easy access to housing, health and educational facilities. 

Many countries have seen the success of the United States' urban systems and are beginning to follow in its path. One notable case is China, which is using its communist system to promote economic growth. Furthermore, they believe that by encouraging movement into the cities will make it easier to control the general population. 

Theories of Urbanization and Economic Development

There are many different explanations that have been proposed to explain the recent trend of urbanization. Some include the theory of trickle down effects which states that the success of other regions will eventually "trickle down" to lesser developed countries. Another theory is that of underdevelopment, which states that the lesser developed countries are stuck in this economic situation because they are being held down by the more financially and militarily advanced countries, and only now are they being encouraged to participate in the world economy. 

Useful Websites

Urban population growth

Chapter 6: Changing Metropolitan Form

Fordism

Henry Ford and his new system of mass production completely changed the economics of America. 

By producing goods in mass quantities, it increased the supply, which enabled manufacturers to lower the prices for the consumers. Most importantly, by using this 

system for his own automobiles, it allowed more people to purchase vehicles and let them live further from cities, increasing suburbanization. Further more, with the paving of roads, cities were becoming nicer and parkways were being constructed. This allowed previously inaccessible areas to be developed, furthering the settlement of America. 

Suburban Growth 

At first, suburbs were rather small and often built on a grid pattern, becoming known as infill suburbs. These suburbs were not built up very much, sometimes not having sidewalks, and the houses were often very small. Later, as suburbs became more popular and more densely populated, land-zoning requirements became more important, as the cities would try to control how the suburbs would grow and become inhabited. Also some developments were planned with certain demographics in mind, such as Boca Raton (FL) which was designed for the upper class. These kinds of planned suburbs have every imaginable detail mapped out, including what kinds of commercial buildings would be built and how elite these ventures would be. 

Freeways and Metropolitan Sprawl

With the advancement of automobiles and their design and capabilities, more people began to own them, and the average number of cars per household increased. This led to the creation of freeways and also to the amount of suburban growth. This sprawl that Peter Hall defines needs to meet 4 preconditions (150):

1.  the production of uniform residential tracts with stable property values

2. due to the postwar baby boom, there was an accumulation of people needing housing, as well as because of the amount of  people returning to domestic life from the war

3. the Veteran's Administration allowed returning veterans to have cheap long-term financing 

4. the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 allowed 41,000 mi of highway to be built, linking together all of the major cities

Mass Production of Housing

Using a new method of building homes called balloon frame construction, and applying the same philosophies of Fordism, construction companies were able to mass-produce homes for lower prices and in shorter amounts of time. The most famous of these was Levittown, Long Island, that housed 45,000 people. These suburbs, known as Fordist suburbs, are characterized by drive through establishments, such as fast food, banks, and mini marts, increasing the convenience of everyday life. 

End of Suburbia

Previously, central cities were surrounded by suburbs and had everything that these surrounding cities needed. However, their importance has since been eclipsed by the surrounding urban areas. The

re has also been an increase of the employment opportunities in the skilled job sector, which has increased the process of gentrification and sped up the process of deindustrialization in these central cities. 

Chapter 4: Urban Systems in Transition

Chapter 4: Urban Systems in Transition

This chapter tells how there are separate times in the history of urbanization. From 1945-1972 is the time of economic recovery, then the next era is between 1972-1983 which is a time period of economic crisis. Post 1983 is when there was a technological boom, and became powered by telecommunications equipment. 

1945-1972

In this first stage, there was a change to advanced capitalism, as Henry Ford created the mass production system and thus Fordism was born. New methods of transportation were born, such as interstate highway systems, allowing quicker travel to faraway places.

With increased methods of travel, and the ability to get places quicker, certain cities became the hub of transpo

rtation, known as control centers. Places like Atlanta, Los Angeles and Dallas had a high proportion of corporate headquarters located there, increasing their importance.  It was more convenient to have businesses centrally located in such areas, and they continued to grow and develop.

1972-1983

The United States entered a period of stagflation during the Arab-Israeli war when there was an embargo placed on oil going to the United States, quadrupling oil prices in the United States. As a result, the economy fell into a depression, productivity decreased and unemployment was on the rise. 

This all resulted in a new attitude toward the economy, shifting away from the Keynesian approach and towards decentralization and deregulation of economic activity. Until 1982, the U.S. economy suffered from falling profit rates, plant closings, rising unemployment and poverty. Manufacturing was hit the hardest, and as a result, the process of deindustrialization began. 

Post-1983

There have been certain technological systems that have been more influential than others:

• Production process technologies- are ways in which to make production easily separated and flexible, such as electronically controlled assembly lines, computerized sewing systems.
  
• Transaction technologies- which allows companies to be aware of exactly how much material is needed at any given time, and therefore they do not need to purchase excess stock. 
  
• Circulation technologies- are the technologies that reduce the time it takes to spread information (such as e-mail, and with the latest hand-held devices, such as iPhones and Palm Pilots, people have their e-mail at their fingertips any time of day). This means that more information can be spread over a larger geographic space in a shorter amount of time. 
  

With the shift to a more technology-based economy, there have still been not as many jobs in the manufacturing sector, yet there are more jobs in the professional and business sector. This also introduces the idea of relative locations, meaning that it is easier to spread information via computer and internet, and the central location of a company is not as important. 

Globalization

With the new technologies, companies are now constructed in order to serve a larger market, on a global scale, and thus transnational corporations were born. 

There is a four tiered system of hierarchy within the global system:

• World cities- ex. London, New York, Tokyo- these cities are primarily responsible for a disproportionate amount of the world’s business. They dominate their own continents, business-wise, and are also closely tied to one another. There are also secondary world cities, which are also integral parts to the flow between governments, major corporations, and other necessary business functions. World cities also have certain characteristics that distinguish them from other cities. 
  
• A certain modicum of control over the flow of information, culture and news.
  
• Definite social and economic segregation- including a huge disparity between the elite (banking, insurance, accounting, etc) and the disadvantaged people
  
• Huge concentrations of new immigrant groups
  
• Prevalent class and racial conflict
• Regional control centers - Boston, Kansas City, Seattle, Dallas - these cities typically have a large number of corporations’ regional and national headquarters. They also have important medical and educational facilities. 
  
• Specialized producer service centers- Orlando, San Jose- these are characterized by having a great need for specialized services such as banking and advertising, yet are dependent upon the previous two-tiers of the city system. 
  
• Dependent Centers- these cities do not exercise the control that the other cities have, instead they have to rely upon the decisions made by these larger cities. There are certain kinds of cities that fit this category
  
• Traditional manufacturing centers (Buffalo)
  
• Industrial/military centers (San Diego)
  
• Mining/industrial centers (Charleston)
  
• Resort/retirement/residential (Las Vegas)

Demographic and Social Change

One of the most important changes in the United States economy was the appearance of the Baby Boom generation, and the influence that this generation had because of its sheer size. The Baby Boomers were marked by an affinity for the counterculture movement, and a rejection of the staid lifestyle that was encouraged during the 1950s. Because of their large numbers, there was a great deal of competition in the housing and job markets, increasing the market value for houses and wages stood still. Because of the fierce competition, a me-first mentality developed, creating a materialistic, narcissistic culture. 

The next generation were the post-Boomers/Young Adults, which entered the housing market at a time when mortgages prices were down, making housing more affordable. Often these Post-Boomers live in the Sun Belt region, which has a fast growing market. 

The elderly is also an important demographic, as they make 12.4 percent of the total population. This demographic is often (relatively) wealthy, and they often relocate to luxury spots, such as Las Vegas or Orlando. 

Key Concepts:

• different generations bring about changes in the places they live and the effect that they have on the economy.
  
• as globalization occurred, certain cities came to the forefront of the industry, increasing their importance
  

Useful Websites:

•   World Cities

Chapter 3: The Foundations of the American Urban System

Frontier Urbanization

The colonization of America by the British gradually led to the colonies establishing themselves in the trade system. Several cities became known as entrepots, which were intermediary centers of trade and transshipment. Some such cities included New York, Boston and Newport. These cities dominated the market area which were dependent on them, which became known as the hinterlands. 

Following the American Revolution, colonists created a Constitution that favored the growth of cities and allowed for a great deal of free trade amongst the states and people. With this new government came many important changes, including that there was more interstate commerce, rather than international trade back to a mother country. Also, as there was more westward expansion, new important cities developed, usually those close to rivers such as New Orleans and Buffalo. 

Furthermore, there became an increase in specialization of cities, as certain regions became known for specific exports. For example, eastern cities became known for manufacturing especially Newark, Providence and Lowell. This was due to their comparative advantage, which meant the best way for a place to efficiently utilize their resources (for example, the rivers which a city was located on would allow it to build factories). 

Vance's Mercantile Model

Urban geographer James Vance, Jr. came up with a theory of the evolution of America

n urban systems:

1. Exploration - this was time in which discoverers came to America from the Old World in search of new places to colonize and new trades in which to invest in 
2. Exploitation of natural resources - during this time, settlers discovered the natural resources available to them in their new habitats (New England - timber and beaver pelts, Newfoundland - codfish)
3. Farm based production - during this time, settlers began to produce many staple products (tobacco, cotton, grain) and the excess crop was sold for export. It was in this manner that many of the gateway cities began to emerge because of the great deal of goods that they exported. 
4. Establishment of interior depot centers - demand for staple exports remained steady, yet the population continued to grow. Thus there was a build-up of cities further from the waterfront, increasing the need for travel routes.  Gradually the interior cities became known as wholesale collection centers. 
5. Economic maturity and central place infilling - There are established areas for manufacturing, such as the inland gateway cities and the gateway ports. Agricultural settlements begin to be established further inland, along the trade routes, becoming market towns. 

Vance offers a clear and concise way to understand how American cities came about, from gateway ports to their gradual movement inland. It combines the central place model shown at right, and adds a history to it, to explain how the central place model could have come about. People are willing to travel a certain distance for certain goods, and that explains how the settlement patterns are formed. 

Principles of Urban Growth 

One theory is that existing cities enjoy certain benefits that newly formed cities do not, called their initial advantage. This is due in part to the fact that the earliest settled cities had the advantage of having settled in prime locations. 

One theory that was developed was that of the rank size rule, which shows the relationship between the cities size, their population and their rank within an urban system.  More information can be found here. 

A second theory that evolved was that of central place theory by Walter Christaller. This essentially is the theory of centralization of cities, and that there are numerous smaller settlements located outside of bigger more densely populated cities.