Chapter 11: The Urban Development Process

Chapter 11: The Urban Development Process

Property Location Rent and Investment

There are certain factors which affect how rent interacts with the rest of the economy (274):

1. Housing shortages lead to higher profits for construction companies, which leads to more people investing in construction. 

2. If there is a lot of housing space, then less people will be investing in construction, which will continue until there is a shortage again. 

3. Because of low interest rates and a shortage of housing space, there will be a construction boom until demand is met. 

4. When interest rates are low in comparison to house building profits, there will still be a boom in construction even though there is a lot of housing available. 

Rent Gap

Rent gap is the difference between the amount that is actually charged to inner city residents and the amount that could be charged if there was actually money put into renovating those buildings.  If the differential is great enough, the renovations will actually be made, and this actually has the effect of harming those who needed this cheap, inner city housing because they can no longer afford it. 

Growth Machines

Growth machines played a huge role in the development of some cities. Oftentimes it was between the public and private sector individuals who tried to improve the city. Usually, they were companies such as banks and construction companies, who, by investing money into the city, would also increase their own profits. 

Chapter 10: The City as Text: Architecture and Urban Design

Chapter 10: The City as Text: Architecture and Urban Design

When thinking about the landscape of an urban area, the first image that comes to mind is that of the skyline, dotted by skyscrapers and other massive buildings. However, there is much more to the design of cities than just the buildings; many different types of architecture are present in modern day cities, as well as other types of public amenities such as parks. 

Parks

Public parks were created because of the clutter of cities and the overwhelming amount of people that resided there, they used these parks as a way of expressing ideals- religious, social. Furthermore, because of urbanization and the paving of roads and everything like that, there were very few trees and other greenery left in the city. By creating an area such as Central Park in NYC (shown at left), it was allowing people to see at least a little return to a naturalistic habitat. 

Beaux Arts

Another result of the urbanization of America was to try to create more beautiful cities. Thus the Beaux Arts movement was adopted in America, and its implementation can especially be seen in the city of Washington, D.C. The mall and the Federal Triangle all were built in a somewhat uniform manner, in a neoclassical style. While there was still a great deal of urbanization of the area, because of the careful planning, it did not come at the expense of the view. 

Skyscrapers

Chicago was the first city to be affected by the skyscraper movement, but it quickly spread to other cities in the country.  This was because the preconditions of the first passenger elevator, the use of wrought iron beams, and the creation of an iron frame all coincided with Chicago's development. The appeal of the skyscraper was that it was able to rise to unbelievable heights while taking up only a small portion of actual ground area. It also appealed to businesses machismo, for whoever had the biggest building was sure to draw the most attention, awe, and therefore customers. 

American Modernism

Today, many buildings are built with ubiquitous amounts of steel and glass, which is supposed to be a reflection for today's technology and modernity. Many of them also utilize glass so that they can reflect their surroundings. A proposed 115 story skyscraper, to be constructed in Chicago, is pictured at right. The problem is, in a post 9-11 world, there is a huge fear that to create such tall structures is to invite terrorist attacks. 

Key Websites

Pictures of great buildings throughout the world

Chapter 5: The Foundations of Urban Form and Land Use

Chapter 5: The Foundations of Urban Form and Land Use

The Mercantile City

Before cars were so greatly utilized, many cities were very compact so that people would be able to walk from their houses, jobs and utilities such as banks all mixed together. Cities were created so that people could walk just about anywhere in a half hour.  There was also a definite structure to these cities, with the center of the city housing the city's elite, then the lower classes on the outskirts of the elite, and finally the poorest members of the city living on the fringes of the city. 

The Early Industrial City 

These types of cities very much depended on the location of the factories, which is why they often were created on riverbanks, so that the machinery could be powered. There also became a more stratified society, with an industrial business elite, a white collar group, and a blue collar group of workers. 

Instruments of Change: Horsecars and Railroads

In 1829, the first horsecar appeared in New York, carrying passengers through New York for a flat rate. The problem with this system, however, was that only the wealthiest families were able to utilize this system.  Soon, the railroads were created and they completely reorganized the city. This meant that the central business district was created because there was such a large amount of people in the railway station. The most important thing that the railroad did was to create a change in where people lived, as they were able to move further out from the city, increasing commuter traffic.  

Land Use Zoning Laws

Although it was originally used as a method of discrimination against the Chinese, wanting to segregate from the rest of the city by citing that they were only allowed to open laundries (their main form of employment) in certain areas of the city. This trend later spread to other cities, which had the result of dividing cities into certain districts. Another example of this practice, this time against the Jewish population of New York, would be the garment district that was created. 

Urban Structure in the Industrial Era

Many changes were brought about because of public transit besides the CBDs that were created. One such change was that there were specific shopping districts created because people didn't want to walk very far from the railway stations.  Also, in the interest of convenience, department stores were created, allowing more shopping to be done in one place. 

Related Websites

More information on central business districts

Examples of urban land use, transit, waterways, etc

Chapter 8: Urban Form and Land Use in the Less Developed Countries

Chapter 8: Urban Form and Land Use in the Less Developed Countries

Today’s cities still show how they were planned back in colonial days, typically with the wealthy closest to the central plaza, and then further from the center are the lower and middle class residents. The cities that had royal guidance in planning their cities often forced citizens to relocate to cities because it allowed them to control them much easier.  

There are several different types of African cities, thus making it difficult to compile them into one description. There is the indigenous or native city, which often were walled and were later influenced by colonial rule. Islamic cities were often some of the most important stops along the trans-Saharan caravan routes, because of the huge amount of religious centers and marketplaces. The colonial or administrative city, served as the bridge between the colonial powers and the locals, helping them maintain control over the region.  There are also the European, dual and hybrid cities which are a mix of different kinds of cities. 

It is especially interesting to see the layout of the South African city because of their practice of apartheid. There is a white CBD which is the main CBD, then Indian/Chinese CBDs, industrial districts, and separate residential areas for the whites, Indians, Chinese, and African peoples. 

Chapter 7: Urbanization in the Less Developed Countries

Chapter 7: Urbanization in the Less Developed Countries

By 1950 only about 30% of the globe was urbanized, with North America leading the world, with over 70% of its population living in towns and cities. China is one of the notable countries making strides to urbanization, using their communist form of government to fuel the process. 

Factors Promoting Urban Growth

 There has been a trend of more births than deaths, which has led to a change in demographics, increasing the total population who of course need housing. Also, immigrants converge upon cities, because there is easy access to housing, health and educational facilities. 

Many countries have seen the success of the United States' urban systems and are beginning to follow in its path. One notable case is China, which is using its communist system to promote economic growth. Furthermore, they believe that by encouraging movement into the cities will make it easier to control the general population. 

Theories of Urbanization and Economic Development

There are many different explanations that have been proposed to explain the recent trend of urbanization. Some include the theory of trickle down effects which states that the success of other regions will eventually "trickle down" to lesser developed countries. Another theory is that of underdevelopment, which states that the lesser developed countries are stuck in this economic situation because they are being held down by the more financially and militarily advanced countries, and only now are they being encouraged to participate in the world economy. 

Useful Websites

Urban population growth

Chapter 6: Changing Metropolitan Form

Fordism

Henry Ford and his new system of mass production completely changed the economics of America. 

By producing goods in mass quantities, it increased the supply, which enabled manufacturers to lower the prices for the consumers. Most importantly, by using this 

system for his own automobiles, it allowed more people to purchase vehicles and let them live further from cities, increasing suburbanization. Further more, with the paving of roads, cities were becoming nicer and parkways were being constructed. This allowed previously inaccessible areas to be developed, furthering the settlement of America. 

Suburban Growth 

At first, suburbs were rather small and often built on a grid pattern, becoming known as infill suburbs. These suburbs were not built up very much, sometimes not having sidewalks, and the houses were often very small. Later, as suburbs became more popular and more densely populated, land-zoning requirements became more important, as the cities would try to control how the suburbs would grow and become inhabited. Also some developments were planned with certain demographics in mind, such as Boca Raton (FL) which was designed for the upper class. These kinds of planned suburbs have every imaginable detail mapped out, including what kinds of commercial buildings would be built and how elite these ventures would be. 

Freeways and Metropolitan Sprawl

With the advancement of automobiles and their design and capabilities, more people began to own them, and the average number of cars per household increased. This led to the creation of freeways and also to the amount of suburban growth. This sprawl that Peter Hall defines needs to meet 4 preconditions (150):

1.  the production of uniform residential tracts with stable property values

2. due to the postwar baby boom, there was an accumulation of people needing housing, as well as because of the amount of  people returning to domestic life from the war

3. the Veteran's Administration allowed returning veterans to have cheap long-term financing 

4. the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 allowed 41,000 mi of highway to be built, linking together all of the major cities

Mass Production of Housing

Using a new method of building homes called balloon frame construction, and applying the same philosophies of Fordism, construction companies were able to mass-produce homes for lower prices and in shorter amounts of time. The most famous of these was Levittown, Long Island, that housed 45,000 people. These suburbs, known as Fordist suburbs, are characterized by drive through establishments, such as fast food, banks, and mini marts, increasing the convenience of everyday life. 

End of Suburbia

Previously, central cities were surrounded by suburbs and had everything that these surrounding cities needed. However, their importance has since been eclipsed by the surrounding urban areas. The

re has also been an increase of the employment opportunities in the skilled job sector, which has increased the process of gentrification and sped up the process of deindustrialization in these central cities.